What characterizes the standard of proof and CAS decisions in international doping regimes?

• A. Standard of proof is always beyond reasonable doubt.
• B. Sanctions are only monetary.
• C. Standard of proof varies; commonly clear and convincing or comfortable certainty; sanctions range from warnings to suspensions; CAS awards enforceable internationally with limited appeal grounds.
• D. CAS decisions can be appealed on merits in any national court.

Answer: (C)

In international doping regimes, the standard of proof is not the criminal standard of beyond reasonable doubt; instead, the evidence must reach a higher than probable standard often described as clear and convincing or comfortable certainty that a violation has occurred. This reflects the civil/arbitral nature of the process rather than a criminal trial. Sanctions under these regimes range broadly—from warnings and reprimands to suspensions, disqualifications, or longer bans—depending on the violation and any aggravating factors. CAS decisions, as the international arbitration body for sport, produce awards that are enforceable worldwide under the New York Convention, and challenges to those awards are limited to narrow grounds such as procedural fairness or lack of jurisdiction, not a broad merits-based appeal in any national court. This combination—an elevated but non-criminal standard of proof, a spectrum of sanctions, and internationally enforceable CAS awards with limited grounds for review—best fits how international doping regimes operate.